Wasting Time at Work the Epidemic Continues

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J Public Aff. 2021 Nov; 21(4): e2695.

The impact of COVID‐19 pandemic on employees organizational commitment and job satisfaction in reference to gender differences

Nisha Chanana

¹ Faculty of Management Studies, The ICFAI University, Baddi Himachal Pradesh, India

Received 2021 Mar 8; Revised 2021 Apr 19; Accepted 2021 May 3.

Abstract

In this study, an attempt has been made to examine the level of organizational commitment and job satisfaction among male and female school teachers working in private schools during the Covid‐19 pandemic. For the present study, descriptive method is used. The sample of 181 private school teachers was drawn using a purposive sampling procedure. The organizational commitment questionnaire is developed by Allen and Meyer in 1990 and job satisfaction index by Brayfield and Rothe in 1951 is used for the study. For descriptive statistics mean, standard deviation (S.D.), and z test is used. Shapiro–Wilks test, Levene's test, and Mann–Whitney U test is used to analyze data in the current study. The results revealed that female teachers are more continuance committed as compared to male teachers during this tough situation of a pandemic. The level of organizational commitment is found low in both female and male teachers during the Covid‐19. No significant difference is found in the overall job satisfaction among male and female teachers during the Covid‐19 pandemic. This study also determines a positive and significant relationship between organizational commitment and job satisfaction during the Covid‐19 pandemic.

Keywords: Covid‐19, gender, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, pandemic

1. INTRODUCTION

Today the industry setup is shifting in relation to the worldwide epidemic of Covid‐19. Organizational commitment in the workplace is the connection of an employee's involvement with their organization. Individuals who are committed to their organization usually feel an association with their organization. Individuals feel that they fit in the organization and also feel they recognize the objectives of the organization. Committed employees are always tending to be more determined in their work and they show quite high efficiency and productivity. Organizational commitment explains the involvement of an employee with a particular organization. Organizational commitment is characterized by three factors, that is, belief in the organization and acceptance of the goals and values of the organization; readiness to employ considerable effort; and a positive aspiration to continue with the organization (Porter et al., 1974). An organizational commitment means a psychological state that attaches the individual to their organization. Organizational commitments have three labels, that is, affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative commitment. All the three constructs are linked to turnover (Allen & Meyer, 1990). Thus, organizational commitment is related to the employee involvement and attachment to the organization. If they are not committed to their organization, they will leave the organization. So this concept is also related to turnover. The model of organizational commitment explains that commitment to an organization is a psychological state, and that it has three dimensions, that is, affective, normative, and continuance commitment that affect how employees feel about the organization that they work for (Meyer & Allen, 1997).

The first component of organizational commitment is an affective commitment, which indicates the individual's emotional attachment to the organization. Affective commitment is the employee's emotional attachment and involvement in the organization. Organizational members, who are committed to an organization on an affective basis, continue working for the organization (Meyer & Allen, 1991). Affective commitment dimension of organizational commitment is a work‐related attitude of employees' positive feelings toward their respective organization (Morrow, 1993). Affective commitment is the relative strength of an individual's identification with and involvement in a particular organization (Mowday et al., 2013). Employees who are affective committed to their organization always stay with the organization as they view that their individual employment association with the organization is compatible with the objectives, beliefs, and values of the organization (Beck & Wilson, 2000). (Kanter, 1968) describes it as the attachment and involvement of an individual's toward their organization affectivity. It is an attitude or an orientation of the employees toward the organization, which associates or attaches the personality of the person to the organization (Sheldon, 1971). (Meyer & Allen, 1997) explain continuance commitment as cognizance of the costs linked with the departure of the organization. (Kanter, 1968) and (Meyer & Allen, 1997) also describes that in the continuance commitment, cost is associated with leaving the organization because of the individual's perception of weighing of costs associated with leaving the current organization. (Meyer & Allen, 1991) explains that employees whose major link to the organization is built on continuance commitment persist as they want to do so. Hence, continuance commitment can be considered an instrumental attachment of individuals toward their respective organization, where the employees association with the organization created a calculation of monetary assistance gained (Beck & Wilson, 2000). The strong point of continuance commitment is that in which employees need to stay, is determined by the apparent costs of departure with the organization (Meyer & Allen, 1984). (Allen & Meyer, 1990) also elucidated that accumulated investments and poor employment openings tend to force employees to continue their responsibility with the organization and also committed toward their organizations because they need to. This suggests that employees stay in the organization as employees are attracted by other accumulated investments like pension plans, seniority, or organization‐specific skills, which they could lose if they leave the organization. (Meyer & Allen, 1997) terms normative commitment a feeling of obligation to remain with the organization. Employees are committed because duty and obligation make them obliged to retain in the organization (Allen & Meyer, 1990). According to (Meyer & Allen, 1991) individuals who are normative committed always feel obliged and due to this obligation they must remain with the organization. In normative dimension, the individuals stay with the organization because they should do so or it is the appropriate thing to do. The specialty of normative commitment is about give‐and‐take obligation between the employees and the organization (Suliman & Iles, 2000). The give‐and‐take/reciprocal obligation is established on the social exchange theory. Social exchange theory suggests that social behavior and conduct are the result of an exchange process. It means a sturdy normative obligation or rule to reimburse the benefit in some way (Mcdonald & Makin, 2000). This indicates that employees regularly feel an obligation toward the organization that they have to repay the organization for investing in them. (Meyer & Allen, 1991) discuss that this obligation ascends through the development of socialization within the people or the organization.

Human Resource managers are persistently evolving innovative, creative, and effective ways to satisfy the employees in a healthier way during this difficult time. Organizations always remember that employees who are satisfied with organization will lead to productivity in the place of work and it generates a higher customer satisfaction and unconditionally progresses in sales and provides profit in the company. Job satisfaction meaning described by (Spector, 1997) as how much people like or dislike their jobs. Job satisfaction is a state of mind determined by the level to which the individual perceives her or his job related needs to be being met (Evans, 1997). A state of depression is present in the young teachers who are taking online lectures because of the Covid‐19 Pandemic situation. Further result revealed that teachers who are of young age group and also married they are having high chances of getting depressed because of family and job responsibilities (Sheikh et al., 2020). The study revealed higher job satisfaction in terms of relationships with colleagues, anti‐epidemic work fulfillment, and work recognition. Further results determined that employees showed lower satisfaction in terms of anti‐epidemic work intensity, salaries compared with the workload and working environment, and conditions. Education, work experience, anti‐epidemic work duration, daily sleep duration, and the form of participation were factors influencing their job satisfaction. (Yu et al., 2020). Schools should adopt more effective strategies to improve university teachers' professional identity and job satisfaction in order to reduce the practical problems of job burnout, ensure the effectiveness of online teaching, and maintain the sustainable development during the epidemic (Chen et al., 2020). The positive employee relations contribute to the level of job satisfaction. In addition, trust is an important factor that mediates these relationships. Based on the results of the research, it was possible to describe the mechanism of shaping a supportive work environment during a pandemic. (Bagie'nska & Anna, 2021).

2. COVID‐19 PANDEMIC

The severe respiratory syndrome appeared in Wuhan (Hubei province), China. Epidemiological analyses have inferred that the epidemic was linked to a seafood market in Wuhan, China (Tao et al., 2020). Covid‐19 is an epidemic that has now reached 139,501,934 confirmed cases globally, with 2,992,193 confirmed deaths as reported by the World Health Organization (WHO) as of April 17, 2021, including 223 Countries, areas, or territories with cases. As of 14 April 2021, a total of 751,452,536 vaccine doses have been administered. In the European region, the total number of confirmed cases is 48,987,035 and 1,032,338 deaths reported. In regions of the Americas, confirmed cases are 59,294,109 and 1,438,618 deaths confirmed. In Eastern Mediterranean Region total no of confirmed cases is 8,396,854 and 169,805 deaths reported. In the Western Pacific region, it is 2,184,778 confirmed cases and 34,786 deaths reported. South‐East Asia Region confirmed cases are 17,423,545 and deaths are reported in 236,088. African region reported 3,214,868 confirmed and 80,545 deaths (WHO Coronavirus Disease (Covid‐19) Dashboard, 2021). World Health organization's risk assessment report stated that the Covid‐19 pandemic is very high risk at the global level (Situation Report‐101, 2020). People who are living with non‐communicable diseases are more vulnerable to becoming seriously ill or dying from COVID‐19 (Situation Report‐132, 2020).

WHO‐led UN Crisis‐Management Team coordinating 23 UN entities across nine areas of work. More than 5 million people registered on Open WHO and accessing online training courses across 30 topics in 50 languages. A total of 669,248,795 COVID‐19 vaccine doses administered globally as of 8 April 2021. COVAX has shipped over 38 million vaccines to 104 participants as of 9 April. 17,753,922 PCR tests shipped globally. 198,747,426 medical masks shipped globally. 166 GOARN deployments conducted to support COVID‐19 pandemic response. 1,566,287 gloves shipped globally. 8,659,511 face shields shipped globally (Weekly operational update on COVID 19–12 April 2021, 2021).

World Health Organization gives some recommendations and guidance for the public. According to WHO, Maximum people infested with the COVID‐19 virus will experience mild to moderate respiratory illness and recover without any special treatment. People who are old and people have medical complications like cardiovascular, cancer, diabetes, and chronic respiratory diseases are more likely to develop severe sickness. According to WHO guidelines, persons must protect themselves and others from Covid‐19 infection by washing their hands and using an alcohol‐based rub regularly. According to the report of WHO (Coronavirus disease 2019, 2019), the COVID‐19 virus spreads mostly through droplets of saliva and secretion from the nose when a Covid‐19 infected person coughs or sneezes. WHO has invited the world's scientists and worldwide health professionals together to speed the (R&D) research and development process. WHO is also working in collaboration with scientists, business, and global health organizations. According to the New York Times (Zimmer et al., 2021) vaccines normally involve years of research and testing before reaching the clinic, however, in 2020, scientists entered on a race to create safe and effective coronavirus vaccines. Researchers are currently testing 67 vaccines in clinical trials on human beings, and 20 have reached the final stages of testing. At least 89 preclinical vaccines are in active investigation on animals.

In 2020, there is no effective vaccine or approved drug treatment against COVID‐19 is established. In this pandemic situation, most of the states go for lockdown, so that spread of Covid‐19 will breakdown soon. Several nations have also sealed borders to evade international travelers from dispersal of the virus (Ghosh et al., 2020). According to Business Insider (Kaplan et al., 2020), most of the nations are implementing various measures to slow the spread of the Covid‐19, from state quarantines to school closures.

Most of the nations put some form of restriction to the civic like lockdown, social distancing, and requirement to wear a face mask when you are out of your home. In this tough situation, most of the organizations started working online and started Work‐From‐Home (WFH) regime. In this pandemic situation most of the organizations offer the facility to their workers to WFH. Work from home is challenging for workforces as they do not feel the organizational culture and climate at home, as lack of attention because of frequent disruption of family members, work‐life conflict, and imbalance of work‐life faced by the personnel. Employees do not have proper equipment and tools (computer, mouse, printers, scanners, internet connection, headphones, webcam, and a quiet place to work), most of the employees feel stressed and dissatisfied with their job. Employees are not sure about their job security and also about their salary. The prime responsibility of the organizations is to take care of their employees' wellbeing and engage them properly so they always feel committed and satisfied. Those employees who are committed to their organization are always satisfied with their job. Leaders should deliver some motivational lectures, increase their morale, provide security, and open environment so personnel can raise their voice if they are having some problems. Leaders can use multimedia for communication in this difficult situation. There should be transparent policy, so employees do not feel stress about their job.

3. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The result of the present study describes that there are no significant sex differences in organizational commitment (Bruning & Snyder, 1983). Results revealed that females have a higher level of commitment than males (Alvi & Ahmed, 1987). In this study, it is found that the affective commitment of female workers is higher than that of male workers. The result further determined that the normative commitment of male workers is higher than that of female workers (Cemile, 1992). The result of the research found that men have higher levels of organizational commitment than women. The study depicted that gender difference in organizational commitment among men and women in family roles, or that the associations of such roles to organizational commitment differ significantly by gender (Marsden et al., 1993). The results showed no significant gender differences between men and women with respect to the level of organizational commitment. The results indicating that the discretionary measure is of more prominence to organizational commitment for female employees as compared to male employees (Peterson, 2004). The finding of the paper tells that there was a significant contribution of work‐family role conflict to organizational commitment. Furthermore, the finding displays that there was a significant difference in the level of organizational commitment among male and female respondents based on work‐family role conflict (Akintayo, 2010). The study found no significant difference in the level of organizational commitment based on gender. This result indicates that female and male respondents have similar perceptions related to organizational commitment where they work (Refik & Cemalettin, 2010). Females have a lower level of organizational commitment than males. The result of the study showed that on the basis of gender, organizational commitment is in the favor of males. Male respondents can adopt the norms and values of the organization easier than females (Aydin et al., 2011).

This research paper showed no significant difference in the organizational commitment level of employees on the basis of gender (Abdullah & Ramay, 2012). In this study, the level of organizational commitment was higher in females as compared to males' participants. Female participants were found to be more committed to the organization than male participants. In relation to perceived organizational support, the result suggests that the participants who had perceived more organizational support, became more committed to their organizations (Celep & Yilmazturk, 2012). The outcomes specify that men and women have a similar level of affective commitment, continuance commitment, and an overall organizational commitment. Though, results disclose that women have a higher level of normative commitment than men (Khalili & Asmawi, 2012). Female respondents show a higher degree of commitment to the organization than male respondents. An investigation of this result indicates a description that there is a perceived difference in alternative employment opportunities between males and females (Nagar, 2012). This study has highlighted that commitment has countless effects on the successful performance of an organization. Highly committed employees have a stronger desire to associate with the organization and they also have greater organizational citizenship behavior (Suki & Suki, 2012). Females were more motivated and inclined toward the affective commitment to their respective organization as compared to their male colleagues. There was no significant difference found for the continuance commitment on the basis of gender, however, males were highly associated with normative commitment as compared to females (Ch et al., 2013). The paper showed no significant difference between three dimensions (affective, continuance, and normative) of organizational commitment and Gender (Ariffin & Ha, 2014). In this study, the means for organizational commitment were not statistically different for men and women. However, the aspects that were related to organizational commitment have differed for men and women. Peer networking is related to organizational commitment, women propose that peer networks can develop organizational commitment for women (Macintosh & Krush, 2014). There is no statistically significant effect on organizational commitment found in terms of gender. Though results exhibited that females have a higher organizational commitment on average than their male co‐workers (Çoğaltay, 2015).

The results of the paper showed no significant differences among males and females. Gender does not have any effect on organizational commitment (Kónya et al., 2016). The study found that there is no significant difference among employees with respect to gender. The outcome of the paper found significant difference occurred across level of management and educational qualification in relation to burnout and organizational commitment (Khera, 2017). The result revealed that delegation‐related rewards had a stronger impact on organizational commitment in males than in female personnel. However, other delegation‐free rewards, that is, fatigue, supervisor/co‐worker support, and role clarity were equally related to organizational commitment for both genders (Kokubun, 2017). The study reported high levels of affective commitment among workers both male and female, and they both perceive their co‐workers as emotionally supportive. Affective commitment increased job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behaviors. Affective commitment decreased turnover and absences in the organization (Sloan, 2017). Normative commitment is higher among male employees as compared to female employees. Females affective commitment and continuance commitment is high as compared to male (Zufiesha et al., 2017). The result of the study showed that interpersonal relationship and working environment of youths have a positive effect on organizational commitment. Further study revealed that there was a moderating effect of gender on the relationship between interpersonal relationship and organizational commitment of youths (Lee & Cho, 2018). In terms of gender, results revealed that there are no differences between genders where the values associated to the level of affective commitment. The continuance commitment is more strongly related to the conscientiousness of males in an organization, while in females the decisive factor is the atmosphere in the workplace. Normative commitment to male and females are alike (Leszczynska, 2018). The results determined that role space is negatively significant related to the overall organizational commitment of the selected employees. Employee perception of the organization is to establish positively significantly related to affective commitment, normative commitment, and overall commitment (Mohammad, 2018). The result discovered that there was a statistically significant difference with respect to the gender on organizational commitment. The result in the study discloses that the female respondents have a higher organizational commitment in comparison to male respondents (Gyeltshen et al., 2019). The result indicated that professional commitment is influenced by the personal stress of a teacher (Malik, 2020). The level of piety, resilience, and a great sense of responsibility determine the commitment of an employee to the organization where he works (Athar, 2020). Study found that the levels of organizational resilience and the extent of CSR practices reinforce perceived job security of employees, which, in turn, determines their organizational commitment. Organizational response to COVID‐19 affects perceived job security and enhances managers' organizational commitment (Filimonau et al., 2020). The results of the study indicated the direct positive and significant impact of extent of exposure on job stress although direct negative, significant association with commitment. Job stress also observed having direct negative impact on commitment (Zandi et al., 2020). The results of this study showed that at the time of the coronavirus outbreak, the healthcare workers in Babol had very positive and high organizational and social commitments (Aghalari et al., 2021).

Result of the study revealed that teachers with higher overall teaching stress had lower job satisfaction and moreover female teachers had higher levels of workload and classroom stress (Klassen & Klassen, 2010). The results of this study determined that job satisfaction has a positive and significant effect on teacher performance (Santoso et al., 2020). Job satisfaction defined as a positive emotional state resulting from the person's work perception (Giménez‐espert et al., 2020). Covid‐19 pandemic brought about a gender gap in job satisfaction. Women reported similar work productivity and job satisfaction as men before the pandemic. Further result revealed that women were less productive and less satisfied with job than men after the outbreak (Feng & Savani, 2020). Study reported that more women than men have lost their jobs, more women than men are in essential jobs that expose them to infection and psychological stress. Women have had more work disruption as compared to men because of increases in childcare and other responsibilities (Carli, 2020). The satisfaction level of the teachers is reported to be less in online teaching (Suganya & Sankareshwari, 2020). The results revealed job satisfaction are significantly influencing the psychological well‐being of the employees (Prasad et al., 2020). The results of this study show the relationship between employees' job satisfaction and job performance, but with pretty weak intensity. From the study, it is found that male employees and female employees are satisfied with the present job condition of virtual work during the Covid‐19 pandemic (John et al., 2020). A positive and significant direct effect between teacher performance and job satisfaction, has found positive significant effect between personality and job satisfaction (Abidin, 2020). Secondary teachers demonstrated a high degree of satisfaction at the relational level (students, administrative bodies, and colleagues) after a period of confinement due to the emergence of the Covid‐19 (Hawani & Chikha, 2020). The average job satisfaction of the participants was found in this study. Further result reveals that committed employees had higher job satisfaction levels (Systems et al., 2021). The results of this study found job satisfaction of university teachers to be significantly negative predictors of job burnout. Further result of the study determines that job satisfaction playing a moderating role between professional identity and job burnout. This study also confirmed that professional identity and job satisfaction are important factors affecting job burnout of university teachers (Chen et al., 2020). An increased level of fear of Covid‐19 was associated with decreased job satisfaction, increased psychological distress, and increased organizational and professional turnover intentions (Rn et al., 2020). In this pandemic of Covid‐19, organizations know that engaged employees are the key to success in this tough time. In this tough time, companies must keep their personnel satisfied and motivated during pandemic circumstances (Chanana & Sangeeta, 2020). The highly stressful work environment resulted in job dissatisfaction with tendency to leave job in the future during the pandemic of Covid‐19 (Said & El‐shafei, 2021). This paper reveals that online teaching due to the COVID‐19 pandemic negatively affected the psychological state of the teachers. This established psychological distress in university teachers. Teachers perceived weak job satisfaction during the Covid‐19 pandemic (Ali et al., 2021). Employees enjoyed their job during COVID 19 pandemic when their job security is guaranteed, all facilities are fulfilled, a happy atmosphere is provided, and suitable workload is given. In this study, majority of employees were satisfied with their overall job (Hidayat et al., 2021). The outcomes show that a high percentage of teachers revealed anxiety, depression, and stress symptoms during Covid‐19 pandemic (Ozamiz‐etxebarria et al., 2021). This research examines the relationship between employee relations and job satisfaction. Results stated that employee relations indeed have a significant and positive relationship with job satisfaction. Further study found that positive employee relations contribute to the level of job satisfaction (Bagie'nska & Anna, 2021).

The study outcomes show that organizational culture, job satisfaction, and technology provide motivation and have a significant positive effect on employee performance during the Covid‐19 Pandemic (Sapta et al., 2021).

4. RATIONALE OF THE STUDY

Most of the countries are affected by the Covid‐19 pandemic. In this tough situation, WFH regime is executed by most of the organizations, especially in the education sector. But WFH regime is challenging for organizations as well as for employees during this tough situation of pandemic specifically by teachers. During Covid‐19, businesses need to satisfy their employees in various refined ways so that they can commit to their organization. This paper is to determine the level of organizational commitment and job satisfaction among male and female school teachers working in private schools during the Covid‐19 pandemic.

4.1. Objective of the study

1. To determine the level of organizational commitment among male and female private schools teachers during the Covid‐19 pandemic.

2. To examine the level of job satisfaction among male and female private schools teachers during the Covid‐19 pandemic.

3. To compare affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative commitment among male and female teachers of private schools during the Covid‐19 pandemic.

4. To compare overall organizational commitment among male and female private schools teachers during the Covid‐19 pandemic.

5. To compare overall job satisfaction level among male and female private schools teachers during the Covid‐19 pandemic.

6. To study the pattern of relationship among organizational commitment and job satisfaction during the Covid‐19 pandemic.

4.2. Hypotheses of the study

H₀ 1. There is no significant difference in affective commitment among male and female teachers of private schools during Covid‐19 pandemic.

H₀ 2. There is no significant difference in the continuance commitment among male and female teachers of private schools during Covid‐19 pandemic.

H₀ 3. There is no significant difference in the normative commitment among male and female teachers of private schools during Covid‐19 pandemic.

H₀ 4. There is no significant difference in the overall organizational commitment among male and female teachers of private schools during Covid‐19 pandemic.

H₀ 5. There is no significant difference in the overall job satisfaction among male and female teachers of private schools during Covid‐19 pandemic.

H₀ 6. There is no significant relationship between overall organizational commitment and job satisfaction among male and female teachers of private schools during Covid‐19 pandemic.

5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The present study has been designed to examine the level of organizational commitment and job satisfaction among male and female teachers of private schools during Covid‐19 pandemic.

Research Design: For the present study, descriptive method is used. This is a comparative study in which affective commitment, continuance commitment, normative commitment, overall organizational commitment, and job satisfaction among male and female teachers of private schools during Covid‐19 pandemic were determined.

Sampling Plan: All male and female teachers of private schools working in Haryana constituted the population of the study for the present investigation. The sample was drawn from the teachers of private schools. The sample of 181 teachers was drawn using a purposive sampling procedure. An individual teacher was the sample unit.

Data Collection: For the present examination, the data has been collected in two ways, that is, primary data and secondary data. Primary data are collected through a questionnaire focused on teacher working in private schools. Secondary data are collected from various research journals, articles, books, and with the help of internet.

Description of the Questionnaire: This Questionnaire is developed by (Allen & Meyer, 1990). Eight items each for affective commitment scale, continuance commitment scale, and normative commitment scale. Several studies have examined the reliability (alphas) of the organizational commitment questionnaire. (Allen & Meyer, 1990) reported 0.87 for affective commitment, 0.75 for continuance commitment, and 0.79 for normative commitment. (Dunham et al., 1994) found alpha ranges from 0.74 to 0.87 for affective, 0.73 to 0.81 for continuance, and 0.67 to 0.78 for normative. In affective commitment scale, four statements are positive and four statements are negative. In continuance commitment scale, six statements are positive and two statements are negative and lastly, in normative commitment scale, five statements are positive and three statements are negative.

The Job Satisfaction Index developed by Brayfield and Rothe (1951) contains 18 items with thrustone scale, the likert scoring techniques consisting of five categories (agree‐disagree) were applied to items. Reliability of the scale was calculated on the present samples. Cronbach's alpha value of the job satisfaction Index is 0.882, representing that the scale is highly reliable for this particular study.

Administration of the Data: In order to collect data for the present study, an online survey was conducted in November 2020, which included questionnaires on Organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Out of the total 240 questionnaires sent, 181 questionnaires filled online by the respondents were complete in all aspects resulting in an overall response rate of approximately 75.41%.

Scoring of the Questionnaire: Eight items selected for each of the affective commitment scale (ACS), continuance commitment scale (CCS), and normative commitment scale (NCS). Organizational commitment was scored on five‐point scale. A score of 1 was given to the response strongly disagree, 2 to disagree, 3 to undecided, 4 to agree, and 5 to strongly agree. For negative items, the scores assigned to each of the alternatives had been reversed. The range of the overall organizational commitment was 24 to 120. A minimum and the maximum possible score is 8 and 40, respectively, for each (affective, continuance, and normative commitment) dimension.

Job satisfaction items were measured on five‐point scale, it contained nine negative and nine positive statements. Negative items were scored on 1–5 and positive were scored 5–1. Score of one being the least and five being the most and the overall score was obtained by adding up all the individual scores. A minimum and maximum possible score are 18 and 90, respectively.

Data Analysis: For descriptive statistics mean, standard deviation (S.D.), and z test is used. To test the assumption of normality, the Shapiro–Wilks test is used (Field, 2013). Levene's test for equality of variances is used to test the assumption of homogeneity of variance (Field, 2013). Mann–Whitney U tests are used to compare the groups (Field, 2013). The effect size is calculated for the Mann–Whitney tests. The effect size is calculated manually. The same is presented with the help of appropriate statistical tables and figures.

6. RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

In order to fulfill the research objectives of the present study, the collected data are administered using appropriate statistical techniques like mean, standard deviation, z test, Mann–Whitney test, and spearman rank correlation. The organizational commitment scale measures three different types of organizational commitments that are fairly diverse in nature and have different feelings for commitment. The job satisfaction scale measures the overall job satisfaction of employees. For the measurement of the organizational commitment level and job satisfaction, descriptive analysis has been presented below.

6.1. Descriptive analysis

Statistical tools like mean, S.D., and z test were used to measure the level of organizational commitment and job satisfaction of teachers working in private schools during the Covid‐19 pandemic.Figure1 reveals that the affective commitment mean score of male teachers (17.09) is slightly lower than mean score of female teachers (17.15). In continuous commitment, male teachers mean score (19.492) is lower than the female teachers mean score (26.575). In Normative commitment, mean score of male teachers (17.23) is slightly higher than the female teachers mean scores (16.79).

Mean score of organizational commitment and job satisfaction

Overall, organizational commitment mean score of female teachers (60.517) is higher than the male teachers mean score (53.82). In case of job satisfaction female teachers mean score (36.683) is slightly higher than the male teachers mean score (35.508).

6.2. Affective commitment

(Mowday et al., 2013) described attitudinal commitment is the relative strength of an individual associated with a particular organization. (Meyer & Allen, 1984) and (Meyer & Allen, 1991) called attitudinal commitment as affective commitment. An examination of the Table1 reveals that the observed mean score of male teachers (17.098) is significantly lower than the standard mean score of 24. Further, the departure from expectations was tested by applying z test. The value of z = −13.680 is found significant at 0.01 level. Thus, the obtained finding reveals that male school teachers have a lower level of affective commitment. On the other hand, female school teachers also hold a lower level of affective commitment, z values reveals that the observed mean score is significantly different from the standard mean score (z = −20.417, p < 0.01). The observed mean score obtained by the female teachers (17.150) is lower than the standard mean score (24) suggesting thereby that their emotional attachment to their respective school is of lower level during the Covid‐19 pandemic.

TABLE 1

Descriptive statistics and z values of organizational commitment and job satisfaction

	Gender	N	Observed mean	Standard mean	SD	SE	z value
Affective Commitment	Male	61	17.098	24	3.9400	0.5045	−13.680
	Female	120	17.150	24	3.6751	0.3355	−20.417
Continuance Commitment	Male	61	19.492	24	5.6380	0.7219	−6.244
	Female	120	26.575	24	3.8494	0.3514	7.327
Normative Commitment	Male	61	17.230	24	4.0677	0.5208	−12.999
	Female	120	16.792	24	3.9998	0.3651	−19.742
Overall Organizational Commitment	Male	61	53.820	72	8.6343	1.1055	−16.445
	Female	120	60.517	72	6.5362	0.5967	−19.244
Overall Job Satisfaction	Male	61	35.508	54	5.6469	0.7230	−25.576
	Female	120	36.683	54	5.6076	0.5119	−33.828

6.3. Continuance commitment

Continuance commitment means in which employees feel committed to their organization because of the costs that they feel are associated when they exit from the organization (Meyer & Allen, 1984). Table1 outcome reveals that the observed mean scores of the male teachers (19.492) are different from the standard mean score (24). Further z value of male teachers (z = −6.244, p < 0.01) reveals that the observed mean score is significantly different from the standard mean score. It means male teachers are lower committed to their respective schools. Female teachers have highly continuance commitment level toward their schools because z value (7.327) reveals significant difference (p < 0.01) between observed mean score (26.575) and standard mean score (24). Hence, the result found that the female teachers are more continuance commitment as compared to male teachers during this tough time of coronavirus.

6.4. Normative commitment

(Allen & Meyer, 1990) states normative commitment as "the employee's feelings of obligation to remain with the organization".

Table1 depicts that male teachers (z = −12.999, p < 0.01) observed mean score (17.230) is lower than the standard mean score (24). Result reveals that male teachers are lower on normative commitment because they do not feel highly obliged to continue employment due to Covid‐19.

From Table1 it is clear that the value of z (−19.742) is significant at 0.01 level. The observed mean score of female teachers (16.792) is lower than the standard mean score of 24. Hence, a lower level of normative commitment has been found among female teachers. Therefore, the result found that both female and male teachers of the private schools are lower level of normative committed.

6.5. Overall organizational commitment

(Meyer & Allen, 1991) described organizational commitment "is a psychological state that characterizes the employee's relationship with the organization, and has implications for the decision to continue membership in the organization".

From Table1 it is clear that the observed mean score obtained by the male teachers of the retail sector (53.820) is lower than the standard mean score of 72, and Z value (−16.445, p < 0.01) depicts that the observed mean score is significantly different from the standard mean score.

A perusal of the Table1 depicts that the overall organizational commitment of female teachers is significantly lower than the expected level. The observed mean score (60.517) is lower than the standard mean score of 72. The departure from expectations was confirmed by applying the z test. The value of z (−19.244) is found significant at 0.01 level. Thus, the obtained finding reveals that during Covid‐19 pandemic female teachers are lower level of organizational commitment to their respective schools.

Hence, on the basis of results, we conclude that due to impact of covid‐19 female and male teachers working in the private schools are lower level of committed toward their respective school.

6.6. Overall job satisfaction

Job satisfaction refers to the "attitude and feelings people have about their work. Positive and favorable attitudes toward the job indicate job satisfaction. Negative and unfavorable attitudes toward the job indicate job dissatisfaction" (Armstrong, 2006). It is clear from Table1 that observed mean score obtained by the male teachers is 35.508 lower than the standard mean score of 54; z values reveals that the observed mean score is highly significantly different from the standard mean score (z = −25.576, p < 0.01). Thus, the obtained finding reveals that due to the impact of coronavirus disease male teachers are dissatisfied with their jobs.

Table1 outcome reveals that the observed mean scores of the female teachers (36.683) are different from the standard mean score (54). Further z value of female teachers (z = −33.828, p < 0.01) reveals that the observed mean score is significantly different from the standard mean score. It means female teachers are also dissatisfied with their job during the Covid‐19 pandemic.

6.7. Comparative analysis

This section deals with the comparison of affective commitment, continuance commitment, normative commitment, overall organizational commitment, and overall job satisfaction among male and female teachers.

Table2 results found that the Shapiro‐Wilks test of normality had the significant value of most of the variables under consideration <0.05 at a 5% level of significance. Therefore, the assumption of normality has not been met.

TABLE 2

Normality test of organizational commitment dimensions

Shapiro–Wilk	Statistic	Df	Sig.
Affective Commitment	0.974	181	0.002
Continuance Commitment	0.974	181	0.002
Normative Commitment	0.966	181	0.000
Overall Organizational Commitment	0.990	181	0.264
Overall Job Satisfaction	0.997	181	0.004

Results showed in Table3 reveals that affective commitment, normative commitment, and overall job satisfaction significant values are more than our alpha of 0.05 (p > 0.05). Continuance commitment and overall organizational commitment significant values are less than our alpha of 0.05 (p < 0.05). So it determined that in affective commitment, normative commitment, and overall job satisfaction there is no significant difference among the variances. But Continuance commitment and overall organizational commitment have significant differences among the variances. Accordingly, the assumption of homogeneity of variance is not met.

TABLE 3

Homogeneity of variances test of organizational commitment dimensions

Homogeneity of variances tests	Levene statistic	Sig.
Affective Commitment	0.500	0.480
Continuance Commitment	11.083	0.001
Normative Commitment	0.459	0.499
Overall Organizational Commitment	6.632	0.011
Overall Job Satisfaction	0.517	0.473

So the conclusion, on the basis of the Shapiro–Wilk test and Levene statistics is that assumption of normality and homogeneity of variances has been violated, so in this paper, we use non‐parametric tests (Mann Whitney U) for comparison.

H₀ 1. : There is no significant difference in the affective commitment among male and female teachers of private schools during Covid‐19 pandemic.

As depicted by Table4, no significant differences found between male and female teachers, Mann–Whitney U = 3612.500, z = −1.43, and p = 0.886 > 0.05. The effect size is −0.168. Thus, null hypothesis 1 is accepted indicating thereby that no significant difference in the affective commitment among male and female teachers during the Covid‐19 pandemic.

TABLE 4

Mann Whitney test of affective commitment

Affective commitment
Comparing group	Mann–Whitney U	z	Asymp sig. (2‐ tailed)	r
Group 1 Male Group 2 Female	3612.500	−1.43	0.886

H₀ 2. There is no significant difference in the continuance commitment among male and female teachers of private schools during Covid‐19 pandemic.

The result reveals (Table5) a significant difference in the mean rank of continuance commitment among male and female teachers (p = 0.000 < 0.05]. Therefore, H₀ 2 is rejected. It has been found that male and female teachers have different opinion about continuance commitment during the Covid‐19 pandemic. The effect size is −0.007.

TABLE 5

Mann Whitney test of continuance commitment

Continuance commitment
Comparing group	Mann–Whitney U	Z	Asymp sig. (2‐ tailed)	r
Group 1 Male Group 2 Female	1133.000	−7.606	0.000

H₀ 3. There is no significant difference in the normative commitment among male and female teachers of private schools during Covid‐19 pandemic.

As shown in Table6, there are no significant differences found between male and female teachers, Mann–Whitney U = 3392.500, z = −0.806, and p = −0.420 > 0.05. The effect size is −0.068. Thus, null hypothesis 3 is accepted, signifying thereby that no significant difference in the normative commitment among male and female teachers during the Covid‐19 pandemic working in the private schools.

TABLE 6

Mann Whitney test of normative commitment

Normative commitment
Comparing group	Mann–Whitney U	z	Asymp sig. (2‐ tailed)	r
Group 1 Male Group 2 Female	3392.500	−0.806	0.420

H₀ 4. There is no significant difference in the overall organizational commitment among male and female teachers of private schools during Covid‐19 pandemic.

Table7 showed a significant difference between male and female teachers on overall organizational commitment during Covid‐19 pandemic, Mann–Whitney U = 1996.500, z = −4.997, and p = 0.000 < 0.05. The effect size is 0.172. Hence, Null hypothesis 4 is rejected.

TABLE 7

Mann Whitney test of overall organizational commitment

Overall organizational commitment
Comparing group	Mann–Whitney U	z	Asymp sig. (2‐ tailed)	r
Group 1 Male Group 2 Female	1996.500	−4.997	0.000	‐

H₀ 5. There is no significant difference in the overall job satisfaction among male and female teachers of private schools during Covid‐19 pandemic.

As shown in Table8, there are no significant differences found between male and female teachers, Mann–Whitney U = 32.63.500, z = −1.193, and p = −0.233 > 0.05. The effect size is −0.068. Thus, null hypothesis 5 is accepted, signifying thereby that no significant difference in the overall job satisfaction among male and female teachers during Covid‐19 pandemic.

TABLE 8

Mann Whitney test of overall job satisfaction

Overall job satisfaction
Comparing group	Mann–Whitney U	z	Asymp sig. (2‐ tailed)	r
Group 1 Male Group 2 Female	3263.500	−1.193	0.233	‐

7. CORRELATIONAL ANALYSIS

Inter‐correlations among the scores of two variables (organizational commitment and job satisfaction) have been computed by applying non parametric spearman's rho coefficient of correlation. The correlation has been computed for 181 male and female teachers. It may be noted that the correlation coefficient of 0.098 and 0.128 are significant at 0.05 and 0.01 levels, respectively.

H₀ 6. There is no significant relationship between organizational commitment and job satisfaction during Covid‐19 pandemic.

As depicted by Table9, a positive and significant relationship (r = 0.170, p < 0.05) found between organizational commitment and job satisfaction during Covid‐19 pandemic. Thus, null hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between organizational commitment and job satisfaction has been rejected. It is apparent that male and female teachers who are not committed toward their school due to the Covid‐19 are highly dissatisfied with their job.

TABLE 9

Inter correlation matrix among the variables (N = 181)

S.no.	Variables	1	2
1	Overall Organizational Commitment	–	0.170 a
2	Overall Job Satisfaction	0.170 b	–

8. CONCLUSION

In this study, a comparison of organizational commitment and job satisfaction on the basis of gender was determined, and also to find out teachers' level of commitment to the three dimensions of organizational commitment, that is, affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative commitment. The present study found no significant difference in affective commitment among male and female teachers working in the private schools and further stated that overall affective commitment is lower level in both male and female teachers due to the tough situation of coronavirus. The result of the study suggests a significant difference found on the basis of gender on continuance commitment. Female teachers have more continuance commitment as compared to male teachers; but both have lower level of continuance commitment. The study found no significant difference in normative commitment among male and female employees. Female and male employee's level of normative commitment is almost the same lower level. A significant difference found between male and female teachers on overall organizational commitment. Further results revealed that female teachers are more committed as compared to male teachers during this tough situation of pandemic. The level of organizational commitment is found low in both female and male teachers during Covid‐19. They are lower committed to their respective schools during the Covid‐19 pandemic.

No significant difference in the overall job satisfaction among male and female teachers during the Covid‐19 pandemic is found. Further study determines a positive and significant relationship between organizational commitment and job satisfaction during the Covid‐19 pandemic. Study revealed that male and female teachers, who are not committed to their school in the Covid‐19 situation, are highly dissatisfied with their job.

8.1. Further implications

Education Sector should adopt innovative ways to satisfy the employees during this tough time of pandemic Covid‐19 to keep employees committed and motivated. Schools should be implementing an effective online practice approach to stay in the competition during this tough situation. Virtual relations should be critical for schools to enhance the satisfaction and commitment of teachers. Committed and satisfied employees always achieve objectives very efficiently. Management of the schools also look into how to satisfy the teachers virtually in order to be able to encourage a positive organization culture and climate. Schools also focused to recognize the various activities that motivate and satisfy the teachers in organizations during this difficult time.

Biography

•

Dr. Nisha Chanana is an Assistant Professor of Faculty of Management Studies, The ICFAI University, Baddi, Dist. Solan, Himachal Pradesh. Her current research interests include Organizational Behaviour, Recent HR practices, Organizational Change and Development, Training and Development, and Strategic HRM.

Notes

Chanana, N. (2021). The impact of COVID‐19 pandemic on employees organizational commitment and job satisfaction in reference to gender differences. Journal of Public Affairs, 21(4), e2695. 10.1002/pa.2695 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Data available in article supplementary material

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Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8236929/

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